The Qin and Han Dynasties
Emperor Qin Shihuangdi
Main Idea: Qin Shihuangdi used harsh methods to unify and defend China.
You have read about the problems in China from about 400 B.C. to 200 B.C. The rulers of powerful local states fought one another and ignored the Zhou kings. One of these states was called Qin. Its ruler took over neighboring states one by one. In 221 B.C. the Qin ruler declared himself Qin Shihuangdi (CHIHN SHEE•hwahng • dee), which means “the First Qin Emperor.” The Qin ruler made changes in China’s government that would last for 2,000 years.
A Powerful Ruler Qin based his rule on the ideas of Legalism. He had everyone who opposed him punished or killed. Books opposing his views were publicly burned. Qin made the central government stronger than ever before. He appointed government officials, called censors, to make sure government officials did their jobs.
Second in power to the central government were provinces and counties. Under Zhou kings, officials who ran these areas passed on their posts to sons or relatives. Under Qin, only he could fill these posts.
A Powerful Ruler Qin based his rule on the ideas of Legalism. He had everyone who opposed him punished or killed. Books opposing his views were publicly burned. Qin made the central government stronger than ever before. He appointed government officials, called censors, to make sure government officials did their jobs.
Second in power to the central government were provinces and counties. Under Zhou kings, officials who ran these areas passed on their posts to sons or relatives. Under Qin, only he could fill these posts.
Qin Shihuangdi unified China. He created one currency, or type of money, to be used throughout the empire. He also
ordered the construction of roads and a huge canal. The canal connected the Chang Jiang in central China to what is today the
city of Guangzhou (GWAHNG• JOH) in southern China. He used the canal to ship supplies to his troops in far-off territories.
The Great Wall Northern China was bordered by the vast Gobi. Nomads, people who move from place to place with herds of animals, lived in the Gobi. The Chinese knew them as the Xiongnu (SYEHN•NOO). The Xiongnu were masters at fighting on horseback. They often attacked Chinese farms and villages. Several Chinese rulers in the north built walls to keep out the Xiongnu.
Qin Shihuangdi forced farmers to leave their fields and work on connecting and strengthening the walls. The result was the
Great Wall of China, built with stone, sand, and piled rubble. However, Qin did not build the wall that we know today. It was
built 1,500 years later.
Why Did People Rebel? Many Chinese viewed Qin Shihuangdi as a cruel leader. Aristocrats were angry because he reduced their power. Scholars hated him for burning their writings. Farmers hated him for forcing them to build roads and the Great Wall. Four years after the emperor died in 210 B.C., the people overthrew his dynasty. Civil war followed, and a new dynasty soon arose.
ordered the construction of roads and a huge canal. The canal connected the Chang Jiang in central China to what is today the
city of Guangzhou (GWAHNG• JOH) in southern China. He used the canal to ship supplies to his troops in far-off territories.
The Great Wall Northern China was bordered by the vast Gobi. Nomads, people who move from place to place with herds of animals, lived in the Gobi. The Chinese knew them as the Xiongnu (SYEHN•NOO). The Xiongnu were masters at fighting on horseback. They often attacked Chinese farms and villages. Several Chinese rulers in the north built walls to keep out the Xiongnu.
Qin Shihuangdi forced farmers to leave their fields and work on connecting and strengthening the walls. The result was the
Great Wall of China, built with stone, sand, and piled rubble. However, Qin did not build the wall that we know today. It was
built 1,500 years later.
Why Did People Rebel? Many Chinese viewed Qin Shihuangdi as a cruel leader. Aristocrats were angry because he reduced their power. Scholars hated him for burning their writings. Farmers hated him for forcing them to build roads and the Great Wall. Four years after the emperor died in 210 B.C., the people overthrew his dynasty. Civil war followed, and a new dynasty soon arose.
The Han Dynasty
Main Idea: Developments during the Han dynasty improved life for all Chinese.
In 202 B.C. Liu Bang (lee •OO BAHNG) founded the Han dynasty. Liu Bang was a peasant who became a military leader and
defeated his rivals. He declared himself Han Gaozu—“Exalted Emperor of Han.” Although Han Gaozu threw out the harsh policies of the Qin dynasty, he continued to use censors and also divided the empire into provinces and counties.
What Was the Civil Service? The Han dynasty reached its peak under the leadership of Han Wudi (HAHN WOO• DEE),
which means “Martial Emperor of Han.” He ruled from 141 B.C. to 87 B.C. Because Wudi wanted talented people to fill government posts, job seekers had to take long, difficult tests to qualify for the bureaucracy. Those with the highest scores got the jobs.
In time, Wudi’s tests became the civil service examinations. This system for choosing Chinese officials was used for 2,000
years. The system was supposed to allow anyone with the right skills to get a government job. However, it actually favored the
rich. Only wealthy families could afford to educate their sons for the difficult exams.
Students preparing for these tests learned law and history. More importantly they studied the teachings of Confucius, which had become the official teachings throughout the empire. Students began to memorize the works of Confucius at age
seven. After many years of schooling, the students took their civil service examinations. Only one in five passed. Those who
failed taught school, took jobs as assistants to officials, or were supported by their families.
defeated his rivals. He declared himself Han Gaozu—“Exalted Emperor of Han.” Although Han Gaozu threw out the harsh policies of the Qin dynasty, he continued to use censors and also divided the empire into provinces and counties.
What Was the Civil Service? The Han dynasty reached its peak under the leadership of Han Wudi (HAHN WOO• DEE),
which means “Martial Emperor of Han.” He ruled from 141 B.C. to 87 B.C. Because Wudi wanted talented people to fill government posts, job seekers had to take long, difficult tests to qualify for the bureaucracy. Those with the highest scores got the jobs.
In time, Wudi’s tests became the civil service examinations. This system for choosing Chinese officials was used for 2,000
years. The system was supposed to allow anyone with the right skills to get a government job. However, it actually favored the
rich. Only wealthy families could afford to educate their sons for the difficult exams.
Students preparing for these tests learned law and history. More importantly they studied the teachings of Confucius, which had become the official teachings throughout the empire. Students began to memorize the works of Confucius at age
seven. After many years of schooling, the students took their civil service examinations. Only one in five passed. Those who
failed taught school, took jobs as assistants to officials, or were supported by their families.
The Chinese Empire Grows A large bureaucracy was needed to rule the rapidly growing empire. The population had grown from about 20 million under Han Gaozu to more than 60 million under Han Wudi. This happened in part because Chinese agriculture continued to thrive.
Over time, however, problems began to develop. When farmers died, their land was divided among their sons. When their
sons died, their land was again divided among their sons. Gradually, over several generations, the amount of land a family
had to farm became smaller and smaller. By the middle of the Han dynasty, the average farmer owned only about one acre
of land.
With so little land, farm families could not raise enough to live. As a result, many sold their land to aristocrats and became tenant farmers. Tenant farmers work on land that is owned by someone else and pay their rent with crops. Eventually, aristocrats owned thousands of acres and became very wealthy, but the peasants remained trapped in poverty.
China’s empire grew in size as well as in population. Han armies added lands to the south and pushed Chinese borders westward. The Han dynasty also made the country more secure. After Wudi’s armies drove back the Xiongnu—the nomads to the north—China remained at peace for almost 150 years.
During this period of peace, new forms of Chinese literature and art appeared. In literature, the Chinese emphasized the
recording of history. Scholars and historians wrote new histories of current events and made copies of old literature.
During the Han dynasty, the focus of art also changed. In earlier periods, artists mostly created religious works for the kings and nobles. Under the Han rulers, many beautiful works of art were created for wealthy families. For example, some wall carvings in the tombs of such families feature scenes of everyday life and historical events. They also include highly decorated products made of the best quality silk.
Although the idea of filial piety had existed in the Zhou dynasty, it became very strong during the Han dynasty as the ideas
of Confucius spread and became popular. The stability of the government also helped to strengthen family ties. Although the new scholar class had great influence over the government, the social classes in Chinese society remained the same, and daily life was very similar to what it had been before.
An Era of Inventions New inventions during the Han dynasty helped Chinese workers produce more goods and manufacture more products than ever. Millers used newly invented waterwheels to grind more grain, and miners used new iron drill bits to mine more salt. Iron workers invented steel. Paper, another Han invention, was used by officials to keep government records.
Chinese medicine also improved under the Han. Doctors discovered that certain foods prevented disease. They used herbs
to cure illnesses and eased pain by sticking thin needles into patients’ skin. This treatment is known as acupuncture (A • kyuh • PUHNGK • chuhr).
The Chinese also invented the rudder and a new way to move the sails of ships. These changes allowed ships to sail into the
wind for the first time. Chinese merchant ships could now travel to the islands of Southeast Asia and into the Indian Ocean.
As a result, China established trade connections with people who lived as far away as India and the Mediterranean Sea.
The Silk Road
Over time, however, problems began to develop. When farmers died, their land was divided among their sons. When their
sons died, their land was again divided among their sons. Gradually, over several generations, the amount of land a family
had to farm became smaller and smaller. By the middle of the Han dynasty, the average farmer owned only about one acre
of land.
With so little land, farm families could not raise enough to live. As a result, many sold their land to aristocrats and became tenant farmers. Tenant farmers work on land that is owned by someone else and pay their rent with crops. Eventually, aristocrats owned thousands of acres and became very wealthy, but the peasants remained trapped in poverty.
China’s empire grew in size as well as in population. Han armies added lands to the south and pushed Chinese borders westward. The Han dynasty also made the country more secure. After Wudi’s armies drove back the Xiongnu—the nomads to the north—China remained at peace for almost 150 years.
During this period of peace, new forms of Chinese literature and art appeared. In literature, the Chinese emphasized the
recording of history. Scholars and historians wrote new histories of current events and made copies of old literature.
During the Han dynasty, the focus of art also changed. In earlier periods, artists mostly created religious works for the kings and nobles. Under the Han rulers, many beautiful works of art were created for wealthy families. For example, some wall carvings in the tombs of such families feature scenes of everyday life and historical events. They also include highly decorated products made of the best quality silk.
Although the idea of filial piety had existed in the Zhou dynasty, it became very strong during the Han dynasty as the ideas
of Confucius spread and became popular. The stability of the government also helped to strengthen family ties. Although the new scholar class had great influence over the government, the social classes in Chinese society remained the same, and daily life was very similar to what it had been before.
An Era of Inventions New inventions during the Han dynasty helped Chinese workers produce more goods and manufacture more products than ever. Millers used newly invented waterwheels to grind more grain, and miners used new iron drill bits to mine more salt. Iron workers invented steel. Paper, another Han invention, was used by officials to keep government records.
Chinese medicine also improved under the Han. Doctors discovered that certain foods prevented disease. They used herbs
to cure illnesses and eased pain by sticking thin needles into patients’ skin. This treatment is known as acupuncture (A • kyuh • PUHNGK • chuhr).
The Chinese also invented the rudder and a new way to move the sails of ships. These changes allowed ships to sail into the
wind for the first time. Chinese merchant ships could now travel to the islands of Southeast Asia and into the Indian Ocean.
As a result, China established trade connections with people who lived as far away as India and the Mediterranean Sea.
The Silk Road
Main Idea: The Silk Road carried Chinese goods as far as Greece and Rome.
Chinese merchants made a lot of money by shipping expensive goods to other countries. Silk was the most valuable trade product. Some of it went by ship to Southeast Asia. However, most went overland on the Silk Road.
What Was the Silk Road? Merchants from China began traveling far westward when the emperor Han Wudi sent out a general named Zhang Qian (JAHNG CHYEHN) to explore areas west of China. Zhang had been sent on a mission to find allies for China against its enemies, especially the Xiongnu to the north.
After a journey of about 13 years, Zhang returned to China having failed to find allies for China. However, Zhang had discovered a kingdom far to the west, perhaps in modern-day Kazakhstan, where there were horses of exceptional strength and size.
Emperor Wudi was delighted to hear this because the cavalry of his enemies, the Xiongnu, gave them a great advantage over
his army, which was mostly infantry. The emperor encouraged trade to get these horses so that his cavalry could defeat the
Xiongnu. The result was the Silk Road, a large network of trade routes stretching 4,000 miles (6,436 km) from western China to southwest Asia. By the A.D. 100s, the various portions of the route were completed.
Merchants used camels to carry their goods across deserts and mountains to central Asia. From there Arabs carried the goods to the Mediterranean Sea. The trip over the Silk Road was extremely difficult, dangerous, and quite expensive.
What Was the Silk Road? Merchants from China began traveling far westward when the emperor Han Wudi sent out a general named Zhang Qian (JAHNG CHYEHN) to explore areas west of China. Zhang had been sent on a mission to find allies for China against its enemies, especially the Xiongnu to the north.
After a journey of about 13 years, Zhang returned to China having failed to find allies for China. However, Zhang had discovered a kingdom far to the west, perhaps in modern-day Kazakhstan, where there were horses of exceptional strength and size.
Emperor Wudi was delighted to hear this because the cavalry of his enemies, the Xiongnu, gave them a great advantage over
his army, which was mostly infantry. The emperor encouraged trade to get these horses so that his cavalry could defeat the
Xiongnu. The result was the Silk Road, a large network of trade routes stretching 4,000 miles (6,436 km) from western China to southwest Asia. By the A.D. 100s, the various portions of the route were completed.
Merchants used camels to carry their goods across deserts and mountains to central Asia. From there Arabs carried the goods to the Mediterranean Sea. The trip over the Silk Road was extremely difficult, dangerous, and quite expensive.
The Silk Road was broken up into smaller segments, each traveled by different merchants. This was because the terrain was
so difficult and changed so much over the course of the Silk Road. There were high, snowy mountains; vast deserts; and long
regions of rocky land, as well as rivers and long plains to cross. It would have been extremely difficult for the same animals and carts to survive the entire journey. Most merchants traveled part of the journey and then sold their goods to someone else who traveled another portion of the journey. Goods passed from one person to another until they went from China all the way to kingdoms along the Mediterranean Sea.
Merchants had to pay taxes to many kingdoms as they moved the goods east and west. Each person who bought goods then charged higher prices to the next person. For this reason, they carried mostly high-priced goods such as silk, spices, tea, and porcelain. In return, they earned great wealth.
so difficult and changed so much over the course of the Silk Road. There were high, snowy mountains; vast deserts; and long
regions of rocky land, as well as rivers and long plains to cross. It would have been extremely difficult for the same animals and carts to survive the entire journey. Most merchants traveled part of the journey and then sold their goods to someone else who traveled another portion of the journey. Goods passed from one person to another until they went from China all the way to kingdoms along the Mediterranean Sea.
Merchants had to pay taxes to many kingdoms as they moved the goods east and west. Each person who bought goods then charged higher prices to the next person. For this reason, they carried mostly high-priced goods such as silk, spices, tea, and porcelain. In return, they earned great wealth.
The Impact of the Silk Road General Zhang also told the emperor of a mighty empire to the west with large cities full of
people “who cut their hair short, wear embroidered clothes, and ride in very small chariots.” Zhang was describing the Roman
Empire.
The trade begun by the Silk Road brought China into contact with many other civilizations. Some merchants traveled
by sea. This sea trade linked the Chinese to civilizations in Southeast Asia, southern India, and Egypt. Both the sea and
land trade routes led to an exchange of many different goods and ideas.
Over the years merchants traded many items in addition to silk. These included fruit, vegetables, flowers, grains, and other products. For example, China sent peaches and pears to India, while India sent cotton and spinach to China. In time, Chinese technological advances, such as paper, would also travel to other countries along the Silk Road.
people “who cut their hair short, wear embroidered clothes, and ride in very small chariots.” Zhang was describing the Roman
Empire.
The trade begun by the Silk Road brought China into contact with many other civilizations. Some merchants traveled
by sea. This sea trade linked the Chinese to civilizations in Southeast Asia, southern India, and Egypt. Both the sea and
land trade routes led to an exchange of many different goods and ideas.
Over the years merchants traded many items in addition to silk. These included fruit, vegetables, flowers, grains, and other products. For example, China sent peaches and pears to India, while India sent cotton and spinach to China. In time, Chinese technological advances, such as paper, would also travel to other countries along the Silk Road.
Major Changes in China
Main Idea: Unrest in China helped Buddhism to spread.
Buddhism began in India, but it soon spread to other countries as well. Merchants and teachers from India brought Buddhism to China during the A.D. 100s. At first, only a few merchants and scholars were interested in the new religion. In time, however, Buddhism became very popular. This was due in part to the collapse of the Han dynasty.
The Han emperors after Wudi were weak and foolish. As a result, the central government lost respect and power. At the
same time, as you read earlier, the aristocrats began grabbing more land and wealth. Dishonest officials and greedy aristocrats caused unrest among the farmers.
Wars, rebellions, and plots against the emperor put an end to the Han dynasty. In A.D. 190 a rebel army attacked the Han
capital, Luoyang (loo •WOH• YAHNG). By A.D. 220, China had plunged into civil war. To make the situation worse, the northern nomads invaded the country.
The collapse of the government and the beginning of the civil war frightened many Chinese. They felt unsafe. Buddhist ideas helped people cope with their stress and fears. Even the followers of other religions found Buddhism attractive. Followers
of Confucius and Daoists admired Buddhist concepts. By the 400s, Buddhism had become popular in China.
The Han emperors after Wudi were weak and foolish. As a result, the central government lost respect and power. At the
same time, as you read earlier, the aristocrats began grabbing more land and wealth. Dishonest officials and greedy aristocrats caused unrest among the farmers.
Wars, rebellions, and plots against the emperor put an end to the Han dynasty. In A.D. 190 a rebel army attacked the Han
capital, Luoyang (loo •WOH• YAHNG). By A.D. 220, China had plunged into civil war. To make the situation worse, the northern nomads invaded the country.
The collapse of the government and the beginning of the civil war frightened many Chinese. They felt unsafe. Buddhist ideas helped people cope with their stress and fears. Even the followers of other religions found Buddhism attractive. Followers
of Confucius and Daoists admired Buddhist concepts. By the 400s, Buddhism had become popular in China.